Tattooing

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A tattoo is a design or marking made by the insertion of a pigment into punctures or cuts in the skin. In technical terms, tattooing is micro-pigment implantation. Tattoos are a type of body modification.

The word is traced to the Tahitian tatu or tatau, meaning to mark or strike (the latter referring to traditional methods of applying the designs). In Japanese using traditional methods is irezumi ("insertion of ink"), while "tattoo" is used for non-Japanese designs.

Most tattoo enthusiasts refer to tattoos as tats, ink, art or work, and to tattooists as artists. This usage is gaining support, with mainstream art galleries holding exhibitions of tattoo designs and photographs of tattoos.

Tattoo designs that are mass produced and sold to tattoo artists and studios and displayed in shop are known as flash.

[edit] Prevalence

Tattoos have become popular in recent decades in many parts of the world, particularly in North America, Japan, and Europe. The growth in tattoo culture has seen an influx of new artists into the industry, many of whom have technical and fine art training. Coupled with advancements in tattoo pigments and the ongoing refinement of the equipment used for tattooing, this has led to an improvement in the quality of tattoos being produced. Movie stars, models, popular musicians and sports figures are just some of the people in the public eye who are tattooed, which in turn has fueled the acceptance of tattoos.

In many traditional cultures tattooing has enjoyed a resurgence, partially in deference to their cultural heritage. Historically, a decline in traditional tribal tattooing in Europe occurred with the spread of Christianity. A decline often occurred in other cultures following European efforts to convert aboriginal and indigenous people to Western religious and cultural practices that held tattooing to be a "pagan" or "heathen" activity. Within some traditional indigenous cultures, tattooing takes place within the context of a rite of passage between adolescence and adulthood.

[edit] Popular and youth culture

Current estimates suggest one in seven or over 39 million people in North America have at least one tattoo.

A recent Harris Poll finds that 16% of all adults in the United States have at least one tattoo. The highest incidence of tattoos was found among the gay, lesbian and bisexual population (31%) and among Americans ages 25 to 29 years (36%) and 30 to 39 years (28%). Regionally, people living in the West (20%) are more likely to have tattoos.

Democrats are more likely to have tattoos (18%) than Republicans (14%) and Independents (12%) while approximately equal percentages of males (16%) and females (15%) have tattoos.

This survey was conducted online between July 14 and 20, 2003 by Harris Interactive(R) among a nationwide sample of 2,215 adults.

[edit] Purpose

Oriental dragon theme ~ Courtesy of S. Craxford

Human history shows that tattoos have served in many diverse cultures as rites of passage, marks of status and rank, symbols of religious and spiritual devotion, decorations for bravery, sexual lures and marks of fertility, pledges of love, punishment, amulets and talismans, protection, and as the marks of outcasts, slaves and convicts.

Today, people choose to be tattooed for cosmetic, religious and magical reasons, as well as a symbol of belonging to or identification with particular groups (Street gangs, some sports teams). The Māori of New Zealand often choose to wear intricate moko on their faces. People have also been forcibly tattooed for a variety of reasons. The best known is the ka-tzetnik identification system use by the Nazis on Jews during the Holocaust of World War II.

European sailors were known to tattoo the crucifixion on their backs to prevent flogging as a punishment as at that time it was a crime to deface an image of Christ.

Tattoos are also placed on animals, though very rarely for decorative reasons. Pets, show animals, thoroughbred horses and livestock are sometimes tattooed with identification marks or serial numbers, on certain parts of their body (for example, noses and ears) Such tattoos are performed by veterinarians and the animals are anaesthetized to prevent pain. This is often an alternative to branding which is not considered a tattoo since no ink or dye is inserted.

[edit] Procedure

Modern tattoo machine in use: here outfitted with a 5-needle setup, but number of needles depends on size and shading desired ~ Courtesy of S. Craxford

Some tribal cultures still create tattoos by cutting designs into the skin and rubbing the resulting wound with ink, ashes or other agents. This may be an adjunct to scarification. Some cultures create tattooed marks by "tapping" the ink into the skin using sharpened sticks or animal bones. Traditional Japanese tattoos (irezumi) are still "hand-poked," that is, the ink is inserted beneath the skin using non-electrical, hand-made and hand held tools with needles of sharpened bamboo or steel.

The most common method of tattooing in modern times is the electric tattoo machine. Ink is inserted into the skin via a group of needles that are soldered onto a bar, which is attached to an oscillating unit. The unit rapidly and repeatedly drives the needles in and out of the skin, usually 50 to 3,000 times a minute.

[edit] Permanent cosmetics

Permanent cosmetics are tattoos that enhance parts of the face with the most common being eyebrows, where they may have thinned due to age or the person may be suffering from alopecial and who experiences complete hair loss. The lip line is often tattooed for better permanent definition and the lips themselves may be coloured thus negating the need lip liner products or lipstick. Eyes (shadow, mascara), and even moles can be tattooed, usually with natural colors as the designs are intended to resemble makeup.

[edit] "Natural" tattoos

According to George Orwell, workers in coal mines would wind up with characteristic tattoos owing to coal dust getting into wounds. This can also occur with substances like gunpowder. Similarly, a traumatic tattoo occurs when a substance such as asphalt is rubbed into a wound as the result of some kind of accident or trauma. These are particularly difficult to remove as they tend to be spread across several different layers of skin, and scarring or permanent discoloration is almost unavoidable depending on the location. In addition, tattooing of the gingiva from implantation of amalgam particles during dental filling placement and removal is possible and not uncommon.

[edit] Temporary tattoos

Temporary tattoos are a type of body sticker, like a decal. They are generally applied to the skin using water to transfer the design to the surface of the skin. Temporary tattoos are easily removed with soap and water or oil-based creams, and are intended to last a few days.

Other forms of temporary "tattoos" are henna tattoos, also known as Mehndi, and the marks made by the stains of silver nitrate on the skin when exposed to ultraviolet light. Both methods, silver nitrate and henna, can take up to two weeks to fade from the skin.

[edit] Tattoo removal

Tattoos can be wholly or partially removed by cosmetic surgical techniques, most commonly through the use of lasers. The laser reacts with the ink in the tattoo, and breaks it down. After this, the patient's body then absorbs the broken-down ink and the skin heals once more. The procedure can be expensive, and very painful (some say more so than the original tattoo) and often requires many repeated visits to remove a small tattoo. It also may not be entirely effective in leaving unblemished skin, due to the fact that tattoos also scar the skin to varying degrees, depending on how the tattoo was applied, the way the skin healed, and the area that was tattooed.

Overall, green-based ink is the most difficult to remove. Black ink is most readily broken down by the laser, and unprofessional tattoos done at home are the easiest ones to remove, due to the low quality of ink used, as well as the ineffective manner in which they were applied. Before the advent of laser removal, tattoos could be (at least partially) removed by:

1. loading hydrogen peroxide into a tattoo machine and then retracing the tattoo with the chemical;
2. dermabrasion;
3. surgically cutting the tattoo out of the skin. However, this method often resulted in a scar that was just as unsightly as the original tattoo.

A newer method of removal is by tattooing glycolic acid into the skin with a tattoo machine, the acid pushes the ink to the surface of the skin in the scab, the scab is later removed. This method supposedly scars less than lasering. Glycolic acid is also used for facial peels; when used for tattoo removal, a lower percentage mix is used.

Another alternative for unwanted tattoos is to cover them up with a better tattoo. With the advent of laser tattoo removal, cover up tattoos are becoming less common. Many younger tattooists don't know how or won't camoflauge unwanted tattoos. An experienced artist can often come up with a design that incorporates and hides the existing tattoo.

More recently, many higher end shops and artists (such as innovator Guy Aitchison) have begun using professional laser removal machines not to completely remove an unwanted tattoo, but to break down and lighten it so as to be easier to cover with a new tattoo. Usually after two or three treatments the old tattoo is eliminated enough to cover, all without the extensive damage to the skin that a complete removal would cause.

[edit] Health risks

Permanent tattooing of any form carries small risks, including of infection, allergy, disease, and stress or phobic reactions. Risk reduction in the body arts requires single use items including gloves and needles.

In most prisons there is a significant risk of illness due to tattooing being done without following universal precautions, including such blood-borne diseases as HIV and hepatitis . However there is a program underway in Canada as of the summer of 2005 that opens legal tattoo parlors in prison, this is intended to reduce the risk of infections and may also provide the inmates with a marketable talent. Inmates will be trained to staff and operate the tattoo parlors once six of them open successfully. [1]

In addition, it is important that cross contamination not occur, this is why many counties require that tattooists have bloodborne pathogen training as is provided through the Red Cross.

Though any and all precautions should always be taken to prevent blood-borne diseases, it is interesting to note that no person has ever contracted HIV from the tattooing process, likely due to the minimal amount of blood drawn from a tattoo and the unstable nature of HIV in an open environment. Hepatitis, however, remains a major concern in the tattoo world, and the disease can be, and has been, spread easily.

[edit] Infection

Since tattoo instruments come in contact with blood and bodily fluids, diseases may be transmitted if the instruments are used on more than one person without being sterilized. However, infection from tattooing in clean and modern tattoo studios is rare.

Infections include surface infections of the skin, Staphylococcus aureus, infections that can cause cardiological damage, sexually transmitted diseases, and some forms of hepatitis. People who have a compromised immune system, including those who have no spleen, should consult a physician before getting a tattoo or body piercing.

[edit] Allergic reactions

Allergic reactions to tattoo pigments are uncommon except for certain brands of red and green. People who are sensitive or allergic to certain metals may react to pigments in the skin by becoming swollen and/or itchy, oozing of clear fluid called sebum is also common. People who are allergic to green soap should let their tattooist know before being tattooed, because the area is cleaned before and during the tattoo with green soap and it will ultimately get into the tattoo. A reaction to the green soap will result in itchy redness that may swell. It should go away with time, but can be very uncomfortable, so one should still consult a doctor. Allergic reactions to latex should also be stated before being tattooed or pierced.

People with allergies should think carefully about getting a tattoo because of the risk of anaphylactic shock (hypersensitive reaction), which can be life threatening. Some tattoo artists do small test patches of pigments to be used allowing a week or two for the client to develop a negative reaction before proceeding with the actual tattoo. This is not necessarily useful, however, because it may take years of exposure before an allergic reaction occurs.

[edit] General Shock

There is a risk that unprepared tattoo recipients could fall victim to shock due to the sudden trauma of the process, or a drop in blood sugar levels. Artists will often advise a customer to get a good lunch or drink a beverage high in sugars and/or vitamin C (such as orange juice) before being tattooed. News reports indicate that a New York man died after going into shock during a tattoo session and stumbling through a plate glass window.citation needed

[edit] Tattoos and MRI

There has been concern expressed about the interaction between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) procedures and tattoo inks, some of which contain trace metals. Allegedly, the magnetic fields produced by MRI machines could interact with these metal particles, potentially causing burns or distortions in the image. The television show MythBusters tested the theory, and concluded that there is no risk of interaction between tattoo inks and MRI. In any case, today the majority of professional tattoos do not contain metal particles and therefore raise no concern for MRI or x-ray.

However, research by Shellock and Crues MR Safety and the American College of Radiology White Paper reports adverse reactions to MRI and tattoos in a very small number of cases. They also cite a well documented case Tattoo-Induced Skin Burn During MR Imaging by Wagle and Smith.

[edit] Studio hygiene

The properly maintained tattoo studio will use biohazard containers for blood-stained objects, sharps containers for old needles, an autoclave for sterilizing tools (usually required by law). A studio should have accessible facilities with hot water and soap, and tattooists should wash her or his hands between clients as well as wear new latex gloves for each client.

A reputable tattooist will refuse to tattoo minors (though some areas may legally allow a parent to sign a permission form for a minor), intoxicated people, people with contraindicated skin conditions, or those incapable of consent due to mental incapacity, and attempt to ensure that the customer is satisfied with and sure about the design before applying it. Moreover, she or he will open new, sterile needle packages in front of the client, and always use new, sterile or sterile disposable instruments and supplies, and fresh ink for each session (loaded into disposable containers which are discarded after each client). A tattoo studio should provide clear aftercare instructions and products.

Membership in professional organizations, or certificates of appreciation/achievement, generally require that an artist is aware of the latest trends in equipment and sterilization. However, many of the most notable tattooists do not belong to any association. While specific requirements vary between jurisdictions, many mandate formal training in bloodborne pathogens, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, and cross contamination. A local department of health regulates tattoo studios in many jurisdictions.

[edit] Aftercare

Tattoo artists have had to recommend a variety of products available from local drug stores. These products were intended to prevent cuts, burns, scrapes, and abrasions from becoming infected and not for the healing of new tattoos. The majority of these products contain petroleum or lanolin which, when applied to a new tattoo, can clog skin pores and actually retard the body's healing process. There is also the possibility of allergic reactions to these products, and application to a new tattoo can cause skin reactions leading to loss of ink and permanent damage to a tattoo.

In the last few years, cosmetic and pharmaceutical aftercare products have been developed for the tattoo world. These products are safe, efficient, and dermatologically tested. Most tattoo artists recommend and sell them. A more natural way of healing is the use of the aloe plant, a very popular tattoo healing method in southern united states. It promotes healing without any unnatural chemicals, keeps the tattoo from drying up (a very important thing to avoid) and the lack of oil in the aloe helps the skin retain ink.

New tattoos are wounds which must be looked after properly. Immediately after completing the tattoo, most tattooists will cover the area to keep out dirt and keep the tattoo from oozing into clothes; sometimes the area is wrapped in clingfilm, paper towel, poultry packs (that come in chicken packs) or gauze. Some tattooists will recommend leaving the covering on for several hours or overnight, and then gently washing the area. Japanese people commonly soak the tattoo in hot water to clean it.

[edit] Other uses

Tattooing is also used in managing wildlife and livestock. Animals are marked with symbols or alphanumeric characters for identification. Tattoos may be located anywhere on the animal's body including its ear (common for small mammals) or inner lip (bears).

For example, the symbol (Φ) is tattooed in the ears of pet cats and dogs in Australia to indicate that they have been neutered.

Tattooing is also used as a form of cosmetic surgery, like permanent makeup, to hide or neutralize skin discolorations.

[edit] References

[edit] Anthropological

• Comparative study about Ötzi's therapeutic tattoos (L. Renaut, 2004, French and English abstract)
• PhD Thesis on body-marking in Antiquity (L. Renaut, 2004, French and English abstract)
• Customizing the Body: The Art and Culture of Tattooing (C.R.Sanders, 1989, Temple University Press).

[edit] Popular and artistic

• Ink: The Not-Just-Skin-Deep Guide to Getting a Tattoo Terisa Green, ISBN 0451215141
• The Tattoo Encyclopedia: A Guide to Choosing Your Tattoo Terisa Green, ISBN 0743223292
• Total Tattoo Book Amy Krakow, ISBN 0446670014
• Tattoo Art Magazine

[edit] Medical

• MR Safety and the American College of Radiology Shellock, F.G. and Crues, J.V. American Journal of Roentgenology White Paper
• Tattoo-Induced Skin Burn During MR Imaging Wagle, W.A. and Smith, M. American Journal of Roentgenology: Article

[edit] See also

• Body modification

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